New York Police Department Recruitment and Challenges

Thesis StatementSome of this is funny†¦most of it, if accurate, is outrageous. While some of the latter is verifiable, it is difficult to sort out just how much is simply sour grapes and whining because 40 miles to the East, Suffolk Country MOS have a huge contract. New York Police Department cannot get enough applicants to give a test for Police officers 88% of Port Authority Police Department Academy graduates are from New York Police Department cops, 50% of a new class of NYFD class are from New York Police Department. (Lung Worthy et al, 1986).IntroductionThe New York City Police (NYPD) has over the last years been known to be the largest municipal police force in the world with a vital primary responsibility to enforce the law and carry out investigations within the five boroughs of the New York City, which include Nassau, Suffolk, Westchester etc. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000).NYPD is dedicated to work towards enhancing the quality of life in the city by working in accordance to the constitution. This is achieved through its mission statement, which is â€Å"Enforce the law, preserve the peace, reduce fear and provide for a safe environment†. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000). This in result entails to preventing fear and responding to crime.In the United States, NYPD is considered as being the first modern style police department being an array of specialized services. It is contracted and dedicated to offering expertise in technical operations, K-9, diving or marine skills, aviation or helicopter skills, bomb disposal technology, counterterrorism technology, intelligence skills, antigang techniques, narcotics detection, public transportation, control and public housing. The NYPD has extensive crime scene investigations and laboratory resources while not also overlooking their units, which assist with computer crime investigations. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000)Recruitment Requirements for NYPDTo pace afoot into the NYPD academy, the following requirements ar e a prerequisite: one must be an United States citizen at the time of application; one must possess a valid high school diploma or an educational equivalent; one must have successfully completed either sixty (60) college credits from a credible college or a university with at least 2.0 GPA or two (2) years full time United States Military Service. (Reaves, Brian A., 1996).However, one could achieve the above qualifications yet be disqualified for admission because of the following factors: – One may have been convicted of an offence, which indicates lack of good moral character, or disposition towards violence or disorder or which is punishable by one or more years of imprisonment; one may have undergone repeated convictions of an offence, which indicates disrespect of the law; one may have been discharged from an employment as a result of poor behavior or inability to adjust to discipline; one may have been discharged in a dishonorable manner from the military service; one m ay have been convicted of an offence for domestic violence misdemeanor; and lastly, one may have been convicted for committing a felony. (Lung Worthy et al, 1986).A Practical SituationDespite all these requirements and all the theoretical expectations from these special, well-trained and skilled cops a great problem looms in their working circumstances. For any person to work there is always expectations of commensurate benefits from the field of occupation necessary for the daily upkeep of the individual and dependants. The standard of life should also have a direct relationship with the rightful inputs of an individual to the workplace.Future progress should also be projected by the current occupation performance and renumeration. Other workplace related benefits are also very crucial determinants of an employee wellbeing and welfare. All these issues if not properly addressed, will lead to decreased morale, decreased output and poor performance and ultimately high degree of emplo yees’ dropout leading to high turnovers.This is the critical condition facing the NYPD. In 2005, there was a state arbitration and a panel of judges’ decree covering a contract negotiation between NYPD representatives and state representatives, which came up with a pay decrease for new officers. The new outcomes have been discussed here: – On admission, a new hire during training is supposed to earn $25,100 per year. This continues for the next six (6) months. On the completion of the Police Academy, the respective individual becomes entitled to an annual salary increase up to $32,700. To explain this, the state argues that the salaries were adjusted as a result of inflation. In practice these figures are far much low below the living standards of an employed person and they happen to be the lowest pay levels in history for rookie NYPD cops.This was a wrong decision by the jurisdiction of lowering the starting pay for new officers at such a time that the officer s are most impressionable and this act seems particularly unwise to majority of the people. The salary plunge is blamed on state arbitrator and is seen as a bad public policy to reduce the starting salary. The union officers argued that the city first suggested lower starting salaries to fund the pay raises and arbitration was taken to because the city refused to negotiate across the table. The conventional wisdom when applied tends to purport an inverse relationship between salary and corruption as witnessed in the jurisdiction such as New Orleans. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000).The issue at hand is very crucial towards motivation of workers. A person of proper orientation cannot even dream or think about joining this career, which is devoid of motivation considering that there exists a high degree of risk in this profession. The situation is further compounded by the fact that out of the meangle pays, the respective officer is expected to purchase virtually all of their belongings and personal items. The items include officers’ uniforms and equipment, which one would expect to get from the Academy or employer. Some issues of quality items in this respect it is worth mentioning.Due to the fact of fluctuated pay anybody is highly tempted to go for the least expensive item and it is common sense that least expensive is least quality. The practice of officers buying uniforms and equipment for themselves has an outlay that can easily run into thousands of dollars. As a solution, the Municipal Union in 2007 through the Municipal Credit Union began issuing visa credit cards to the Police Academy as a way to borrow the money needed towards the mandatory equipment purchases.Top pay for experienced officers is no better compared with pay of other potential employers. The recommended top pay for an experienced NYPD officer is $59,588 not including overtime payments and other forms of compensation. The major contributor to these problems is the municipal funding agent s, which although it has continually funded other city project.The new basketball arena in Brooklyn got an approximate 8.3 acres land, which although it was a part of a forest the administration asserts that this is no land grabbing. For the sake of its development it got a further $100 million. (Kleining John, 1996). The Second Avenue Train line got the full funding agreement with a massive $2.5 bond issues and its work expected to follow within weeks to months. (Kleining John, 1996).The Mayor’s Green Plan is raising quite substantial amount whereby drivers are levied for entering Manhattan at rates of $8 for personal vehicles and $21 for truck operators. Major tugs of war have been evidently available as is the case of the New York Civil Liberties Union (NYCLU), which urged the council members to provide the Civilian Complaint Review Board (CCRB) with adequate funding and to hold it accountable for recent lapses in its performance. NYCLU decried to Mayor Bloomberg’s proposals to cut CCRB funding by $1.2 million eliminating twenty four investigator positions and urged the city council to restore the CCRB’s funding to demand cooperation from NYPD and other agencies involved in the civilian review process.The NYCLU was actively instrumental in the creation of the independent CCRB in the year 2002, and has been an outspoken advocate for a vigorous and independent civilian review system. As part of this effort, the NYCLU has fought CCRB budget cuts year after year and has been highly critical of NYPD efforts to undermine the CCRB’s work. (Kleining John, 1996). Whereas the policy makers and implementers argue that they are in favor of keeping tabs on the people suspected of unlawful activities, they argue that the police should not be scrutinizing law abiding New Yorkers’ activities without regulations.Low pay is driving more and more New York’s finest to leave the job despite ranks being bolstered. Especially in 2005 and 2006, 1,769 officers were reported to quit job before their retirement eligibility. (Kleining John, 1996). The numbers have had a real impact on the streets and city hall does not have the courage to solve the problem.Difficulties Compounding Police Force IssueSome extremely difficult times were experienced in the city brought about by the economic downturn of the 1970. An arson attack particularly plagued Bronx leading to permeability of an atmosphere of lawlessness in the city. In addition, the city’s financial crisis led to a hiring freeze on all city departments including the NYPD from 1976 to 1980. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990). A crack epidemic of late 1980s and early 1990s followed in suit the arson attack, which is believed most certainly led to the city’s homicide rate to soar to an all time higher. A marvelous record of murder, so great that it has yet remained difficult to break in any other US major city, was recorded in 1990. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990).The situat ion was further complicated by continuous thefts associated with drug addiction increasing became common. Furthermore, on September 11, 2001, twenty-three NYPD officers were killed when the World Trade Centre collapsed due to terrorist attack. More lives were lost that year than any other year in the NYPD’s history. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990).All through history, the NYPD has suffered from numerous allegations of corruption. However, as the many commissions of inquiry convened to inquire about these alleged matters, the results have shown these instances of corruption reflect far greater on the individual’s involved rather than do on a systemic form of corruption. As a matter of fact, the instances of corruption when compared through statistics to the sheer number of the departments as a whole, the NYPD actually has a lower corruption rate than many other departments.Most commissions on corruption blame low morale and chronically low salary as the large contributing fact or. As things sour up to such heights it remains questionable as to the destiny and way out for these unlucky officers. Information permeability is in place of existing training and working condition in other departments of equal capacity as the NYPD.Situation Outside NYPDIt is crystal clear that in nearby departments’ payments is considerably more ranging from $50,000 for new hires and over $90,000 for experienced officers. Over the last few years hundreds of NYPD city officers have been found to leave for higher paying jobs with other agencies notably the Nassau County Police Department, the Suffolk County Police Department and the Port Authority Police of New York and New Jersey. (Bratton et al, 1998). Discontent over pay issues has become so widespread and so well known that higher paying departments in the lower cost of living areas such as the Rochester New York Police are actively recruiting NYPD officers to join their forces.Large numbers of NYPD officers have also mi grated to the New York City Fire Departments where, although the payments are similar to that of NYPD, work schedules are more attractive and they are privileged to have a more amicable relationship with the public. (Bratton et al, 1998). However, the NYPD is not comfortable with the exodus taken by their trained employees. Resources have been used for the training and therefore the exodus is a big loss to NYPD. Employees’ turnover is also a bad influence facing NYPD as a result of this exodus.Therefore, to counteract the exodus, the NYPD is using contract changes to forbid the prior practice of allowing police officers who join the fire department to transfer their seniority for a compensation purposes. With all new firefighters now compelled to begin working at the same starting pay, the number of NYPD officials willing to exit over to the FDNY is likely to fall considerably. (Bratton et al, 1998).Some NYPD officers charge that the department leadership is seeking to stem t he flow of officers to other jurisdictions by administrative means. In January 2006, 35 NYPD officers seeking to move to the Port Authority Police sued the NYPD claiming that it was refusing to make their personal records available to Ports Authority Police Department (PAPD) background investigators. The plaintiffs won the injunction at the trial level but the appellate division in January 2007 overturned that ruling and ordered that case to trial. (James T. Hamilton, 2000). For its part, the NYPD claims that its actions are merely in line with the personnel practices of any other employers and that there is no â€Å"stealth† effort to prevent officers from moving elsewhere.Nonetheless, it is a fact that no NYPD officers have been included in the last PAPD Police Academy as a result of the deliberate confinement of their background records by their employer NYPD. Despite these obstacles, there are signs that the exodus from the NYPD may become accelerating. In 2006, 902 offic ers resigned before eligibility for retirement. The number had been 867 in the previous year (2005) and 635 in the other previous year (2004), which contributes for an attrition rate of around 2%. (James T. Hamilton, 2000).While the Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly insists that the figures compares positively with the turnover rates in private industry, police union officials note that the proper comparison should be with prior years on the NYPD records in past years. For example, in 1991 only 15% officers left early thus recording an attrition rate of less than one half of one percent. (James T. Hamilton, 2000).The unfair state in NYPD has impacted negative picture of the Academy. Recruits and skilled officers are expected to take care of their transport costs. They are also supposed to cater for costs of their duty belts, handcuffs, flashlights etc. whenever they wear out. The cost of maintaining fresh supplies has been uncatered for by the Academy. The supervisors treat recruits and officers like children and the harsh manner of the supervisors create disrespect in the Academy. Recruits are taken for field experience and during the occasion they are given up to supervisory jobs. Due to the frequent turnover some identified officers and recruits are forced to act on supervisory capacity without an extra pay.At the end of it all participation in unions is crippled due to crippled financial status. They are also incapacitated to play meaningful roles in the society and their background society issues are very poor.The potential recruit of NYPD should expect to earn the lowest pay while working in the most dangerous environment in the tri-state area and should also expect picayune disciplinary action with a trial room having nearly 100% conviction rate. Dozens of civilian complaints from criminals and then complaints are investigated by cop hating, democratic club hacks. The recruit should also expect to be a great â€Å"white defendant† seeking publici ty, grand-standing district attorney have their life ruined when they make a good faith mistake they become financially destroyed plus their families by paying huge money in legal fees.The cop expects the boss ever behind while executing duties, any civilian complaint with a controversial case falls on the cops shoulders. The supervisors of the cops are ready to protect politicians at the expense of their junior cops. The members of the department above the rank of lieutenant are ready to earn promotion through suppression of their juniors. The NYPD cop members are the most demoralized army group. They give protection to millions of liberal, unappreciative citizens and democratic officers who hate them.The cops are also vilified by phony ministers who command huge sums of government poverty money to aid and assist crime. The cops transcend through six months of training then in disquiets join other police departments leaving their leaders searching for reasons of the exodus. As seni or members of NYPD shift to other departments, such as Suffolk County Cop, a vacancy opening leaves a promotion slot quickly.ConclusionThe result of poor funding in NYPD is a poor social economic structure. This leads to exit and exodus of those who enter NYPD Academy leading to brain drain and employee turnover. The lack of funding has created a huge salary disparity between NYPD and other same category departments. Any well-qualified person fears any indulgence with NYPD. Although their entry requirements are well outlines, a number of recruits gain entry into the Academy without the possession of valid driving licenses, relevant credentials possibility of suffering some disqualifications creates problems of retention of probationary employees since discontent and lack of motivation is the cause of exodus to a better place.ReferencesBratton, William J. & Knobler Peter (1998) Turnaround: How American Top Cops Reversed the Crime Epidemic. New York: Random House.Eli B. Silverman (199 0) NYPD Battles Crime: Innovative Strategies in Policing. North Eastern University Press. ISBN-13:978-15555340011.Fred. M. Rafilson (2000) Police Officer Arco; 13th Ed. ISBN-13:978-0028637419.James T. Hamilton (2000) Channeling Violence. Princeton University Press. New Ed. ISBN-13:978-0691070247.Kleining John (1996) The Ethics of Policing. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Lung Worthy, Robert H. (1986) The Structure of Police Organizations. New York. Praeger.Reaves, Brian A. (1996) Local Police Departments. Diane Pub Co. ISBN-13:978-0788130076. New York Police Department Recruitment And Challenges Some of this is funny†¦most of it, if accurate, is outrageous. While some of the latter is verifiable, it is difficult to sort out just how much is simply sour grapes and whining because 40 miles to the East, Suffolk Country MOS have a huge contract. New York Police Department cannot get enough applicants to give a test for Police officers 88% of Port Authority Police Department Academy graduates are from New York Police Department cops, 50% of a new class of NYFD class are from New York Police Department. (Lung Worthy et al, 1986).IntroductionThe New York City Police (NYPD) has over the last years been known to be the largest municipal police force in the world with a vital primary responsibility to enforce the law and carry out investigations within the five boroughs of the New York City, which include Nassau, Suffolk, Westchester etc. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000).NYPD is dedicated to work towards enhancing the quality of life in the city by working in accordance to the constitut ion. This is achieved through its mission statement, which is â€Å"Enforce the law, preserve the peace, reduce fear and provide for a safe environment†. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000). This in result entails to preventing fear and responding to crime.In the United States, NYPD is considered as being the first modern style police department being an array of specialized services. It is contracted and dedicated to offering expertise in technical operations, K-9, diving or marine skills, aviation or helicopter skills, bomb disposal technology, counterterrorism technology, intelligence skills, antigang techniques, narcotics detection, public transportation, control and public housing. The NYPD has extensive crime scene investigations and laboratory resources while not also overlooking their units, which assist with computer crime investigations. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000)Recruitment Requirements for NYPDTo pace afoot into the NYPD academy, the following requirements are a prerequisite : one must be an United States citizen at the time of application; one must possess a valid high school diploma or an educational equivalent; one must have successfully completed either sixty (60) college credits from a credible college or a university with at least 2.0 GPA or two (2) years full time United States Military Service. (Reaves, Brian A., 1996).However, one could achieve the above qualifications yet be disqualified for admission because of the following factors: – One may have been convicted of an offence, which indicates lack of good moral character, or disposition towards violence or disorder or which is punishable by one or more years of imprisonment; one may have undergone repeated convictions of an offence, which indicates disrespect of the law; one may have been discharged from an employment as a result of poor behavior or inability to adjust to discipline; one may have been discharged in a dishonorable manner from the military service; one may have been con victed of an offence for domestic violence misdemeanor; and lastly, one may have been convicted for committing a felony. (Lung Worthy et al, 1986).A Practical SituationDespite all these requirements and all the theoretical expectations from these special, well-trained and skilled cops a great problem looms in their working circumstances. For any person to work there is always expectations of commensurate benefits from the field of occupation necessary for the daily upkeep of the individual and dependants. The standard of life should also have a direct relationship with the rightful inputs of an individual to the workplace. Future progress should also be projected by the current occupation performance and renumeration. Other workplace related benefits are also very crucial determinants of an employee wellbeing and welfare. All these issues if not properly addressed, will lead to decreased morale, decreased output and poor performance and ultimately high degree of employees’ dr opout leading to high turnovers.This is the critical condition facing the NYPD. In 2005, there was a state arbitration and a panel of judges’ decree covering a contract negotiation between NYPD representatives and state representatives, which came up with a pay decrease for new officers. The new outcomes have been discussed here: – On admission, a new hire during training is supposed to earn $25,100 per year. This continues for the next six (6) months. On the completion of the Police Academy, the respective individual becomes entitled to an annual salary increase up to $32,700. To explain this, the state argues that the salaries were adjusted as a result of inflation. In practice these figures are far much low below the living standards of an employed person and they happen to be the lowest pay levels in history for rookie NYPD cops.This was a wrong decision by the jurisdiction of lowering the starting pay for new officers at such a time that the officers are most impr essionable and this act seems particularly unwise to majority of the people. The salary plunge is blamed on state arbitrator and is seen as a bad public policy to reduce the starting salary. The union officers argued that the city first suggested lower starting salaries to fund the pay raises and arbitration was taken to because the city refused to negotiate across the table. The conventional wisdom when applied tends to purport an inverse relationship between salary and corruption as witnessed in the jurisdiction such as New Orleans. (Fred. M. Rafilson, 2000).The issue at hand is very crucial towards motivation of workers. A person of proper orientation cannot even dream or think about joining this career, which is devoid of motivation considering that there exists a high degree of risk in this profession. The situation is further compounded by the fact that out of the meangle pays, the respective officer is expected to purchase virtually all of their belongings and personal items. The items include officers’ uniforms and equipment, which one would expect to get from the Academy or employer. Some issues of quality items in this respect it is worth mentioning.Due to the fact of fluctuated pay anybody is highly tempted to go for the least expensive item and it is common sense that least expensive is least quality. The practice of officers buying uniforms and equipment for themselves has an outlay that can easily run into thousands of dollars. As a solution, the Municipal Union in 2007 through the Municipal Credit Union began issuing visa credit cards to the Police Academy as a way to borrow the money needed towards the mandatory equipment purchases.Top pay for experienced officers is no better compared with pay of other potential employers. The recommended top pay for an experienced NYPD officer is $59,588 not including overtime payments and other forms of compensation. The major contributor to these problems is the municipal funding agents, which althou gh it has continually funded other city project. The new basketball arena in Brooklyn got an approximate 8.3 acres land, which although it was a part of a forest the administration asserts that this is no land grabbing. For the sake of its development it got a further $100 million. (Kleining John, 1996). The Second Avenue Train line got the full funding agreement with a massive $2.5 bond issues and its work expected to follow within weeks to months. (Kleining John, 1996).The Mayor’s Green Plan is raising quite substantial amount whereby drivers are levied for entering Manhattan at rates of $8 for personal vehicles and $21 for truck operators. Major tugs of war have been evidently available as is the case of the New York Civil Liberties Union (NYCLU), which urged the council members to provide the Civilian Complaint Review Board (CCRB) with adequate funding and to hold it accountable for recent lapses in its performance. NYCLU decried to Mayor Bloomberg’s proposals to c ut CCRB funding by $1.2 million eliminating twenty four investigator positions and urged the city council to restore the CCRB’s funding to demand cooperation from NYPD and other agencies involved in the civilian review process.The NYCLU was actively instrumental in the creation of the independent CCRB in the year 2002, and has been an outspoken advocate for a vigorous and independent civilian review system. As part of this effort, the NYCLU has fought CCRB budget cuts year after year and has been highly critical of NYPD efforts to undermine the CCRB’s work. (Kleining John, 1996). Whereas the policy makers and implementers argue that they are in favor of keeping tabs on the people suspected of unlawful activities, they argue that the police should not be scrutinizing law abiding New Yorkers’ activities without regulations.Low pay is driving more and more New York’s finest to leave the job despite ranks being bolstered. Especially in 2005 and 2006, 1,769 of ficers were reported to quit job before their retirement eligibility. (Kleining John, 1996). The numbers have had a real impact on the streets and city hall does not have the courage to solve the problem.Difficulties Compounding Police Force IssueSome extremely difficult times were experienced in the city brought about by the economic downturn of the 1970. An arson attack particularly plagued Bronx leading to permeability of an atmosphere of lawlessness in the city. In addition, the city’s financial crisis led to a hiring freeze on all city departments including the NYPD from 1976 to 1980. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990). A crack epidemic of late 1980s and early 1990s followed in suit the arson attack, which is believed most certainly led to the city’s homicide rate to soar to an all time higher. A marvelous record of murder, so great that it has yet remained difficult to break in any other US major city, was recorded in 1990. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990).The situation was furthe r complicated by continuous thefts associated with drug addiction increasing became common. Furthermore, on September 11, 2001, twenty-three NYPD officers were killed when the World Trade Centre collapsed due to terrorist attack. More lives were lost that year than any other year in the NYPD’s history. (Eli B. Silverman, 1990).All through history, the NYPD has suffered from numerous allegations of corruption. However, as the many commissions of inquiry convened to inquire about these alleged matters, the results have shown these instances of corruption reflect far greater on the individual’s involved rather than do on a systemic form of corruption. As a matter of fact, the instances of corruption when compared through statistics to the sheer number of the departments as a whole, the NYPD actually has a lower corruption rate than many other departments. Most commissions on corruption blame low morale and chronically low salary as the large contributing factor. As things sour up to such heights it remains questionable as to the destiny and way out for these unlucky officers. Information permeability is in place of existing training and working condition in other departments of equal capacity as the NYPD.Situation Outside NYPDIt is crystal clear that in nearby departments’ payments is considerably more ranging from $50,000 for new hires and over $90,000 for experienced officers. Over the last few years hundreds of NYPD city officers have been found to leave for higher paying jobs with other agencies notably the Nassau County Police Department, the Suffolk County Police Department and the Port Authority Police of New York and New Jersey. (Bratton et al, 1998). Discontent over pay issues has become so widespread and so well known that higher paying departments in the lower cost of living areas such as the Rochester New York Police are actively recruiting NYPD officers to join their forces. Large numbers of NYPD officers have also migrated to th e New York City Fire Departments where, although the payments are similar to that of NYPD, work schedules are more attractive and they are privileged to have a more amicable relationship with the public. (Bratton et al, 1998).However, the NYPD is not comfortable with the exodus taken by their trained employees. Resources have been used for the training and therefore the exodus is a big loss to NYPD. Employees’ turnover is also a bad influence facing NYPD as a result of this exodus. Therefore, to counteract the exodus, the NYPD is using contract changes to forbid the prior practice of allowing police officers who join the fire department to transfer their seniority for a compensation purposes. With all new firefighters now compelled to begin working at the same starting pay, the number of NYPD officials willing to exit over to the FDNY is likely to fall considerably. (Bratton et al, 1998).Some NYPD officers charge that the department leadership is seeking to stem the flow of o fficers to other jurisdictions by administrative means. In January 2006, 35 NYPD officers seeking to move to the Port Authority Police sued the NYPD claiming that it was refusing to make their personal records available to Ports Authority Police Department (PAPD) background investigators. The plaintiffs won the injunction at the trial level but the appellate division in January 2007 overturned that ruling and ordered that case to trial. (James T. Hamilton, 2000). For its part, the NYPD claims that its actions are merely in line with the personnel practices of any other employers and that there is no â€Å"stealth† effort to prevent officers from moving elsewhere.Nonetheless, it is a fact that no NYPD officers have been included in the last PAPD Police Academy as a result of the deliberate confinement of their background records by their employer NYPD. Despite these obstacles, there are signs that the exodus from the NYPD may become accelerating. In 2006, 902 officers resigned before eligibility for retirement. The number had been 867 in the previous year (2005) and 635 in the other previous year (2004), which contributes for an attrition rate of around 2%. (James T. Hamilton, 2000).While the Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly insists that the figures compares positively with the turnover rates in private industry, police union officials note that the proper comparison should be with prior years on the NYPD records in past years. For example, in 1991 only 15% officers left early thus recording an attrition rate of less than one half of one percent. (James T. Hamilton, 2000).The unfair state in NYPD has impacted negative picture of the Academy. Recruits and skilled officers are expected to take care of their transport costs. They are also supposed to cater for costs of their duty belts, handcuffs, flashlights etc. whenever they wear out. The cost of maintaining fresh supplies has been uncatered for by the Academy. The supervisors treat recruits and officer s like children and the harsh manner of the supervisors create disrespect in the Academy. Recruits are taken for field experience and during the occasion they are given up to supervisory jobs. Due to the frequent turnover some identified officers and recruits are forced to act on supervisory capacity without an extra pay.At the end of it all participation in unions is crippled due to crippled financial status. They are also incapacitated to play meaningful roles in the society and their background society issues are very poor.The potential recruit of NYPD should expect to earn the lowest pay while working in the most dangerous environment in the tri-state area and should also expect picayune disciplinary action with a trial room having nearly 100% conviction rate. Dozens of civilian complaints from criminals and then complaints are investigated by cop hating, democratic club hacks. The recruit should also expect to be a great â€Å"white defendant† seeking publicity, grand-st anding district attorney have their life ruined when they make a good faith mistake they become financially destroyed plus their families by paying huge money in legal fees. The cop expects the boss ever behind while executing duties, any civilian complaint with a controversial case falls on the cops shoulders.The supervisors of the cops are ready to protect politicians at the expense of their junior cops. The members of the department above the rank of lieutenant are ready to earn promotion through suppression of their juniors. The NYPD cop members are the most demoralized army group. They give protection to millions of liberal, unappreciative citizens and democratic officers who hate them. The cops are also vilified by phony ministers who command huge sums of government poverty money to aid and assist crime. The cops transcend through six months of training then in disquiets join other police departments leaving their leaders searching for reasons of the exodus. As senior members of NYPD shift to other departments, such as Suffolk County Cop, a vacancy opening leaves a promotion slot quickly.ConclusionThe result of poor funding in NYPD is a poor social economic structure. This leads to exit and exodus of those who enter NYPD Academy leading to brain drain and employee turnover. The lack of funding has created a huge salary disparity between NYPD and other same category departments. Any well-qualified person fears any indulgence with NYPD. Although their entry requirements are well outlines, a number of recruits gain entry into the Academy without the possession of valid driving licenses, relevant credentials possibility of suffering some disqualifications creates problems of retention of probationary employees since discontent and lack of motivation is the cause of exodus to a better place.ReferencesBratton, William J. & Knobler Peter (1998) Turnaround: How American Top Cops Reversed the Crime Epidemic. New York: Random House.Eli B. Silverman (1990) NYPD Bat tles Crime: Innovative Strategies in Policing. North Eastern University Press. ISBN-13:978-15555340011.Fred. M. Rafilson (2000) Police Officer Arco; 13th Ed. ISBN-13:978-0028637419.James T. Hamilton (2000) Channeling Violence. Princeton University Press. New Ed. ISBN-13:978-0691070247.Kleining John (1996) The Ethics of Policing. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Lung Worthy, Robert H. (1986) The Structure of Police Organizations. New York. Praeger.Reaves, Brian A. (1996) Local Police Departments. Diane Pub Co. ISBN-13:978-0788130076.

A Strategic Analysis of GE Healthcare Essay

GE Healthcare is a unit of the wider General Electric Company. It has a global orientation, employing more than 46, 000 staff committed to serving healthcare professionals and patients in over 100 countries. It is headquartered in the United Kingdom (UK)-the first GE business segment outside the United States. It has a turnover of approximately $ 17 billion. The headquarters hosts GE healthcare corporate offices as well as finance, sales, global sourcing departments, X-Ray marketing, manufacturing, design and shipping. The finance and sales departments at the headquarters handle GE Healthcare’s high level decisions, but each modality often has its own similar departments. The global sourcing department handles all purchasing for the firm. GE Healthcare provides a variety of products services namely Technologies in medical imaging, diagnostics in medicine, systems for monitoring patients, solutions for improving performance, discovering drugs, and technologies to manufacture bi opharmaceuticals. It also provides X-Ray products which include; radiography, fluoroscopy, vascular, cardiology, and the Mobile C-Arm machine. At present, GE Healthcare has six major business units; Global Diagnostic Imaging Unit: with its headquarters in the US, its business includes; digital mammography, X-ray services, Magnetic Resonance, Computed Tomography and technologies in Molecular Imaging. Integrated IT Solutions (IITS). Also headquartered in Barrington USA, IITS offers solutions in clinical and monetary information technologies, such as IT Products and service for departments, systems for picture Archiving and Communications, Information System solutions in Radiology and Cardiovascular in addition to practices and systems for managing revenue cycles. Medical Diagnostics Business Unit. This is headquartered in USA and its business includes; Researches in Medical Diagnostics, manufacturing and marketing imaging agents used in medical scanning techniques to view human body organs and tissues. Clinical Systems Unit. Also Headquartered in the US, this business offers a variety of healthcare services and technological solutions for medical officers and managers of healthcare systems. These include; Ultrasound, technologies for monitoring patients, bone densitometry, incubators, respiratory care and management of anesthesia. GE Healthcare Life Sciences Unit. This is headquartered in Sweden. It produces technologies for discovering drugs, biopharmaceutical manufacturing and cellular technologies. This division also manufactures equipment for the purifying biopharmaceuticals. GE Healthcare Surgery Business Unit. This division offers equipment and technologies for surgical care interventions, cardiac, systems and technologies for diagnostic monitoring, systems and data management technologies, to systems for mobile fluoroscopic imaging, instrumentations on 3D visual systems and navigation. Its headquarters are in Utah, USA, GE Healthcare has offices in different parts of the world. It also has primary regional operation centers in Paris, Japan, and India. (GE Healthcare Website; Retrieved December 2010) Business Strategy and Organizational Structure Analysis The world business environment is constantly changing, presenting new opportunities and challenges. This calls for competitive strategies in order to remain competitive. This section evaluates the opportunities and challenges presented by GE Healthcare organizational structure. In the Financial Year (FY) ending December 2007, the company recorded revenues of $16, 997 million; an increase of 2.7% over 2006. The operating profit was $3,056 million in 2007; drop of 2.7% from 2006. This GE business unit recorded revenues of $16,015 million, during the Financial Year (FY) ended December 2009. This reflected a decrease of 7.9% over FY 2008. The operating profit for the FY ended December 2009 was $2,240 million a decrease of 15.1% over FY 2008. Analysts attribute to both the complex internal and external environments of the company. I evaluate this argument by undertaking a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis of the company and integrating it to the Porters Fiv e Forces Model. Internal Analysis GE healthcare is one of the best firms in leadership development. The firm’s Human Resources Department is keen in developing a strong workforce that responds to changing global needs. It employs strategically employs and motivates the best qualified talents globally. It invests more than $100 million annually on educational training and staff development. The GE Healthcare Institute provides advanced training for GEHC employees and customers. It combines Technical training, Applications and Leadership trainings. More than 70 laboratories with the latest equipment provide GE and customers world class instruction in all areas of equipment maintenance and operation. The Training in Partnership curriculum provides a full range of training programs. GE managers are considered one of the firm’s distinctive competencies and strengths. The challenge is maintaining employee motivation through better remuneration in a time of global economic meltdown and declining profits for the firm. GE Healthcare is capable of changing and constantly re-inventing itself to deal with changing business needs. Setting new standards for management, organizational design, Research and Development has been the pillar of the firm. This is evidenced by the establishment of the six distinctive business units stated above. Exploiting the resources that the firm has, this competency can be meant un-substitutable. The firm is continually innovating to develop solutions to customer changing needs. As Jeffrey Immelt stated, the firms’ employees â€Å"have an ability to live in the moment†. This quality is rare and not easily imitated. This organizational culture ensures that employees continue with innovation and development of new ideas. The firm has a global orientation, with production facilities outside the US and UK, a wider customer base, a superior brand, sales, marketing, IT and Production departments within every modality. This ensures efficiency of service within each business unit. To ensure financial accountability in outsourcing and procurement, decisions regarding this are handled by offices at the headquarters. GE Healthcare operates within the Rubric of the well known and established General Electric; this promotes sharing of management knowledge and experiences. General Electric is a well known Brand with a global touch. This strong internal structure has been at the core of the firm’s success. However Organizations function as systems, they interact and respond to the surrounding environment (Barnard 1938). This calls for an external analysis of this firm. External Analysis Competitor Analysis Analysts argue that competitors can ensure that similar firms remain productive. Though this can be healthy for consumers, small competitors and substitute product can drive giants out of the market. Siemens AG competes against GE group in communications, power, transportation, medical, and lighting industries. Siemens and HE Healthcare are most competitive in the healthcare industry. Siemens Medical Solutions happens to be largest supplier of healthcare equipment globally. Siemens AG is distinctive in its innovativeness and provision of complete solutions to its customers. Siemens is actually larger, with close to 440,000 employees, 70,000 of which are located in the U.S. Despite the fact that GE Healthcare outdoes Siemens AG in healthcare ($9.4 billion) and energy ($15.3 billion) it is a competitor that cannot be ignored. Both operate at virtually global scale. Other competitors include FUJIFILM Medical Systems USA, Inc. Hitachi Medical Corporation Nihon Kohden Corporation Schiller AG TOSHIBA Medical Systems Corporation Philips Healthcare Philips Respironics, Inc. Industry Analysis General Electric’s firms including the Healthcare unit have been analyzed using porters five forces model to determine which industry is more attractive. GE Healthcare industry is challenged by competitors and new market entrants. Consumers constantly demand low prices at a high quality leading to intensive bargaining. Retailers have to bargain with suppliers to fix the prices of their products. The GE retail industry also faces the threat of substitute products. For more on the competency strategy, SWOT analysis an the forces model see Appendix 1 and 2. Recommendations GE Healthcare already has a global orientation, large customer base. The success of GE Healthcare lies at how best it chooses its business focus. There is need to focus on a specific market niche. Too much diversification and provision of a wide variety of products may be a step forward but it can also become a mechanism for reversal. Much diversification can lead to lose of business focus. It is evident that new technology and the creation of a global virtual market offer an opportunity for the firm to grow its business. African and some Asian markets are still virgins to the firm. There is need to identify and exploit this business markets. Where favorable, establish production facilities. Advertising and strategic marketing remains a superior option to strengthen the firm’s brand identity. With increasing human rights concerns and demands for accountability, there is need for education and corporate social responsibility, as consumers are becoming more sensitive to scientific information. Nevertheless challenges of environmental accountability abound and cannot be ignored. Works Cited Barnard, C.I. The Functions of the Executive, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1938. Print. Barnard, C.I. Organization and Management: Selected Papers, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1948. Print. Brady, Diane. GE: When Execs Outperform the Stock. Business Week 17 Apr. 2006. Goel Sanjay et al .General Electric: Strategic Management.

Antigone – Essay 9

Aristotle defines a tragic hero as â€Å"having high estate, nobility of soul, ability to have free will, having tragic flaw, also somebody we are able to empathize with, a person who suffers from reversal of fortune, achieving enlightenment, accepting responsibility for his/her fall and being able to die bravely. † I am going to use Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero to support evidence to the character Antigone, in the play Antigone. To me, the tragic hero in the play is Antigone. Antigone, who is the daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta, becomes infuriated with Creon, who is the king of Thebes and her uncle. Creon will not allow Antigone's brother, Polynices, to be buried. Antigone tells her sister, Ismene, that she will defy Creon’s ruling even though she knows the consequences, which is death. The first on Aristotle’s tragic hero list is that the character â€Å"should be of high estate/class. † Antigone comes from high estate; she was considered a princess and was to be married to Creon’s son, Haemon. Though Antigone came from high estate/class, she still did not carry out the power to make changes; therefore, Antigone’s character of having high estate, yet no power, complies a little with Aristotle’s tragic hero. Second on Aristotle’s tragic hero list, was that the character â€Å"should have nobility of soul or tragic greatness. † Antigone showed nobility of soul because she stood-up for what she believed in knowing the outcomes would cost her life. An example of her nobility was when she first told her sister, Ismene, of what she was going to do. Antigone said, â€Å"I’ll bury him myself. And even if I die in the act, that death will be a glory. † I think that this quote shows nobility of soul, as well as, a tragic greatness. She saw it as glory to die for doing the right thing. (Line 85) Third on Aristotle’s tragic hero list, was that the character â€Å"should have free will and make important choices. † From the beginning of the play, until Antigone’s death, she kept her free will, as well as, making important choices for herself. When Antigone had gotten caught by the guards while burying her brother, she was taken to Creon to announce what she had done. There is a quote in there that shows how free willed of a person she was, Antigone says to Creon â€Å"Of course I did it. It wasn’t Zeus, not in the least, who made this proclamation—not to me†¦These laws—I was not about to break them, not out of fear of some man’s wounded pride, and face the retribution of the gods. † This quote by Antigone shows that she was capable of making her own choices, whether she would follow man’s law or the gods. She also showed that she was not afraid of the choices she made for herself. (Line 500) Aristotle’s fourth tragic hero listing is that the character â€Å"should have a tragic flaw or hamartia. Antigone made plenty of mistakes, her first one was defying Creon’s ruling. Though it was understandable why she made that choice, it probably would have spared her from going through all this trouble if she would have just asked Creon for a proper burial. Unfortunately, Antigone's stubbornness gets in the way of her thinking and results in her acting off of her emotions. Also, when it comes to Antigone’s dea th, if she would have not taken the matters into her own hand again, Creon had made the decision to free her and give her brother the proper burial. Yet, it is understandable that she does not want Creon to get satisfaction off of her death, as well as, not knowing that Creon would change his mind and actually side with her. Aristotle’s fifth tragic hero listing is that the character â€Å"should be someone with whom we can empathize. † Antigone had this down packed with the audience. The whole city empathized with Antigone and felt that â€Å"No woman ever deserved death less, and such a brutal death for such a glorious action. She, with her own dear brother lying in his blood she couldn’t bear to leave him dead, unburied, food for the wild dogs or wheeling vultures. Death? She deserves a glowing crown of gold! † I feel that quote right there sums it up. (Line 775) The sixth tragic hero listing that Aristotle feels is necessary, is that the character â€Å"should suffer a reversal of fortune (peripeteia), falling from a pinnacle to the depths. † Antigone was considered a princess and to be married to the king’s son, Haemon. After being caught by the guards, she was sentenced to death by the king, Creon. Now she is looked upon as a slave, not as a princess. She is treated like trash and looked down upon. She went from being of royalty to quickly being nothing. Antigone definitely serves the sixth tragic hero listing. The seventh tragic hero listing that Aristotle has is that the character â€Å"should achieve anagnorisis or enlightenment; should accept responsibility for his/her fall. † Antigone takes responsibility when she is first brought to Creon and asked if she was the one to give Polynices a proper burial, Antigone responded with â€Å"I did it. I don’t deny a thing. † Then Antigone shows her commonality with humanity when she is arguing with Creon about the citizens feeling like she did about his ruling. For example, Creon says â€Å"You alone, of all the people in Thebes, see things that way. † Antigone replies with â€Å"They see it that way but defer to you and keep their tongues in leash. † (Lines 492, 570) The last trait that Aristotle has listed that the tragic hero should carry is that the character â€Å"should die bravely. † Antigone died for love, for respect and for doing what she and many others believed what was right. She did not bravely give her life to defy one man’s wants; it just unfortunately came down to her having to do that. Antigone gave up â€Å"†¦bridal-song, the bridal-bed, denied all joy of marriage, raising children—deserted by loved ones, struck by fate†¦Ã¢â‚¬  just to give her brother, Polynices a proper burial. I think she clearly defines dying bravely. (Line 1009) In conclusion, the tragic hero in the play Antigone is herself, Antigone. Antigone shows how her character meets the requirements of Aristotle’s tragic hero, as well as, many other aspects that we find in a common hero. Antigone, from the beginning to the end of the play, lived and died for what she believed in.

List and briefly describe at least five of the programs included with Essay

List and briefly describe at least five of the programs included with Microsoft Office 2010. Provide an example of when you might use each one - Essay Example It is a valuable program for analyzing numerical figures. This program is very helpful in making budget reports, calendars or invoices (Microsoft Corporation, n.d.) The PowerPoint program enables the user to make powerful presentations (Microsoft Corporation, n.d.). It now allows easier coordination with other people through co-authoring which makes it possible for collaborators to work at the same time on one presentation (Microsoft Corporation, n.d.). It is used to make office report presentations and slideshows. This program â€Å"creates professional quality publications and marketing materials† (Microsoft Corporation, n.d.). Publisher is a valuable program for making advertising materials, newsletters, greeting cards and brochures. This is the database program of Microsoft Office. It is used to manage and organize information with the use of its templates and other modular components. This program is very useful in setting up a database of a company’s customers. It is also beneficial for creating database for an organization’s workforce. Microsoft Corporation. (n.d.). Whats new in PowerPoint 2010? Retrieved February 17, 2012, from Microsoft Corporation Web site: http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/powerpoint-help/what-s-new-in-powerpoint-2010-HA010336563.aspx Microsoft Corporation. (n.d.). Word 2010 features and benefits. Retrieved February 17, 2012, from Microsoft Corporation Web site:

Coca cola Global Marketing strategies Research Paper

Coca cola Global Marketing strategies - Research Paper Example One can easily find Coke’s soft drinks anywhere in the world due to their efficient distribution system. Coca-Cola’s Marketing Strategies Global marketing strategy has been adopted by Coca-Cola. They consider the whole world as a single market place and uniform marketing strategy has been in use by Coca-cola for several years, but now different marketing campaigns are being designed for different regions of the world due to change in trends. Business decisions are initialized on a domestic basis to fit in with the cultural and societal needs of the domestic country. Coca-Cola went global in the 1920s. Coca-Cola decided to take its operations worldwide and started marketing research in China, Central America, and in a lot of other countries. Successful and efficient marketing research paved way for Coca-cola to produce on a global scale in various parts of the world (United States Securities and Exchange Commission 33). The Company has got such an extensive distribution and bottlers system that its products are available the world over. Coca cola beverage is available at each and every retail outlet. There are numerous reasons why Coca-Cola opted to globalize its products. The prospect to sell Coca-Cola worldwide existed because it is a product which can be consumed by everyone irrespective of age and gender, all over the world. Advertising has been strong enough to create demand for Coca-Cola worldwide. However, advertising has to be aligned with the culture of the respective countries. An adapted marketing mix means adjusting the mix with the prevailing culture, geographic, economic and other differences in different countries. Different languages and cultures caused problems. The bottling system is one of their greatest strengths. It permits them to carry out their operations on a global scale while at the same time keep a national approach. Brand image is an important factor moving Coke’s sale. The brand name of Coca-Cola is very well re cognized all over the world. Packaging changes have also impacted industry positioning and sales. The bottling system also allows the company to take advantage of countless growth opportunities the world over. This strategy enables Coke to service a large geographic, diverse, area. The threat of new crucial competitors in the carbonated soft drink industry is not very extensive. The threat of substitutes, however, is a very real threat. The soft drink industry is very strong. Possible substitutes that continuously exert pressure on both Pepsi and Coke include tea, coffee, juices, milk, and hot chocolate. Coca-Cola constantly evaluates their supply chain model so as to fit in the local dynamics of the market and recognizing different service needs from our customers, analyze the way we go to market, at the same time as looking for a more competent supply chain model. They rolled various new distribution models throughout their regions looking for improvements in their supply chain ne twork. In Saudi Arabia, advertising forms the essence of the marketing strategy i.e. print, outdoor, and electronic media. The global strategy for Coca-Cola here means that they provide standardized products throughout the world but promote it in a local way. McDonalds even has the same strategy â€Å"Think Local, Act Global†. Their main strategies in the Middle East were to position the products by localizing, bringing new products and innovative packaging. In the Middle East such as Saudi Arabia and UAE we know that

Trade Impasse at WTO Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Trade Impasse at WTO - Essay Example This impasse represented a marked shift in the global trade scenario in the sense that it not only impinged upon the world community to reconsider the cherished concepts like free trade and protectionism, but also extended a unique perspective pertaining to these concepts, harbored exclusively by the developing nations. This dilemma was further accentuated by the fact that while India and China managed to forge a unique alliance in the name of food security, the developed world stood divided against itself, with the European and American negotiators resorting to obstinacy and mutual recriminations (Bradsher 1). The thing to be kept in mind is that Economics is an applied discipline and free trade and protection are merely the tools exploited by the individual nations in particular and the world community in general to solicit their respective objectives. A thorough economic analysis of this situation definitely needs to take into cognizance the political compulsions of the respective states. In the given scenario, China has to defend its primarily rural agrarian sector, its industrial growth being exclusively an urban phenomenon. The US on the other side is averse to enervating its influential farm lobby in the election year (Bradsher 1). The Manmohan Singh led coalition government in India is running its last lap with immanent elections gaping ahead and does not afford to disturb its vote rich farming sector. Hence a credible way out calls for a win win compromise, which is based on sound economic principles and the pressing needs of the nations involved.The economic indicators that deser ve immediate attention are that both the India and China are at present the victims of inflationary trends, with the inflation in India crossing the double digit mark in the last quarter of 2008. China and India are resorting to protection going by the logic that this will encourage their farming sector, without considerably raising the prices of the agricultural products in their domestic markets. By doing so, they have failed to understand the intricacies of their respective economies that are now irretrievably bound to the global economy.The fact is that an imposition of high tariffs on the American agricultural products is eventually bound to increase the prices of the farm produce in both India and China. Such improvised prohibition on the entrance of the foreign agricultural products in the domestic markets of India and China will certainly increase the prices of the similar commodities in these countries. Especially in India, where the farmers do not enjoy a direct and unobst ructed access to the markets and the trade in the agricultural commodities is mainly governed by the commission agents. Once these vested interests come to know that the domestic markets are exclusively left at their mercy, they will certainly not hesitate in artificially elevating the prices of the farm produce by resorting to hoarding and black marketing. The farming sector in China and India is not so resilient at present that an exorbitant tariff on the American agricultural products would directly translate into an enhanced internal competition, resulting in the lowering of domestic prices.One peculiar thing about the food products is that there exists a thin line between the finished product and the raw

Reserch paper on Internet Security(Master level) based on Electronic Essay

Reserch paper on Internet Security(Master level) based on Electronic Business Design - Essay Example However, E Commerce is no panacea. As the dependence on the Internet increases, so do the pertinent risks that might hamper the profitability of a business due to computer criminals. The past few years have revealed that most people are not proactive towards Internet security and tend to wake up to its importance only after the disaster has already struck. This paper aims at analysing the impact Internet security has on electronic business. The prevalent norms of electronic business are analysed and the security mandated are considered. Current security standards are analysed and their loopholes are presented. Finally the paper concludes with the presentation of the prospective state of Internet security. The availability of commodity priced IT systems, high speed and affordable communications infrastructure and ever increasing research and development in computer languages have swelled Electronic Commerce. But what exactly is E Commerce The ubiquitous definition of E Commerce would be, "Buying and selling of goods on the Internet". However this definition is a little too coarse; too simple. The eCommerce Innovation Centre provides a more pragmatic view by defining E Commerce as every form of business or administrative transaction or exchange of information between a company and its outside world (eCIC, 2001). The first implementations of E Commerce applications can be traced back to the early 1970s, when a few companies began exchanging data among themselves through Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), a prevalent industry standard for inter enterprise communication. Since then there has been no looking back. Companies began deploying huge corporate networks with groups of systems per form certain business tasks. The major springboard to E Commerce was provided by the low cost entry of the Internet. Virtually every major company started transforming their businesses to global level through Internet (Gottardi et al, 2004). However today, just a decade after the revolution, E Commerce is plainly considered to be a synonym for high profits. It is an underlying business philosophy assumption of major companies and not some necessary technological breakthrough. Such a ubiquity of E Commerce was mainly due to its potential to lead to dramatic growth in trade and improved efficiency and effectiveness of business practises. As of today, E Commerce consists of several theoretical models, which provide a company with the tools to support the 5 essential elements of conducting business, namely price, promotion, presence, product and place. The important models are: Merchant Model: This model is typically used by traders, resellers, wholesaler and retailers of goods and services. It includes 24x7 ordering and one to one custom marketing (embellix, 2000). Auction Model: This model emulates the traditional 'bidding' model. It implements the bidding mechanisms by presenting goods and their value online. Manufacturer Model: It is used by the manufacturers directly to communicate to the consumers about their goods and service

Workplace Surveillance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Workplace Surveillance - Essay Example To uphold to ethics therefore, many are the organizations who have adapted to the use of workplace surveillance. Though many justify the practice, the writer holds the view that workplace surveillance is not an appropriate way of achieving ethical uprightness and that it infringes on basic human rights of workers. Background Workplace surveillance has been practiced in most parts of America for quite some time now. The practice has indeed been replicated in many parts of the world. In Australia for instance, it is on record that workplace surveillance is backed by the Workplace Surveillance Act 2005 under the New South Wales Consolidated Acts (Australasian Legal Information Institute, 2012). In practice, workplace surveillance permits employers and managers to monitor the activities and operations of their employees, purposely by the use of technological tools. It is not surprising therefore that computer surveillance, under which there is internet surveillance and desktop surveillan ce happens to be the commonest forms of surveillance commonly in practice in most organizations. The Opposition The writer holds the view that the purported reason for undertaking workplace surveillance to regulate the working activities of workers in order to bring about adherence to workplace ethics is a misuse of the system. The opposition view would therefore say that it is appropriate to have workplace surveillance to ensure organizational ethics. The following sections presents a two sided debate whereby the strength and weaknesses of the opposition claims are outlined as against the warrants of the substantive claim. The strengths and weaknesses of opponents’ claim The major strengths in the opposition claims include the fact that no all people can be trusted to on their own put up good behavior and guide against such behavior as pilfering, rudeness towards customers and irresponsible use of working hours. For this reason, workplace surveillance would just be appropria te to put everyone under check. There could also be a merit of workplace surveillance whereby it puts everyone equal before the law and fights against partiality in the sense that once the system is used, each and every individual comes under the surveillance. This is especially so when sophisticated cameras and other technological tools are used (Logan, 2009). These merits not withstanding, the use of cameras and other equipment to watch the everyday steps of workers at the workplace clearly infringes on their privacy (Robinson, 2012). Yet again, the theory of behaviorism provides that the conscience of people to select good morals is better shaped if the people are nurtured to select such attitudes by themselves (Privacy Right Clearinghouse, 2012). This is indeed a major contradiction to the principle of workplace surveillance. The effect of the forceful nature of getting people to be ethical would therefore be that in a situation whereby the systems break down or for whatever lit tle opportunity people get, they would abuse the system and make multiple mistakes of all that they intended to do but did not have the chance to do because of surveillance. Present claim The point is therefore being reiterated again that workplace surveillance is an extreme way of checking for ethical practice at the workplace and thus it is inappropriate. If indeed the figurative saying that there are several ways of killing a cat is true, then it is important that work input and output be monitored but this should take a different dimension other than the use of surveillance technology. Warrants for claim and the opposition The warrant

Business Risk - Edsel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Risk - Edsel - Essay Example Although the manufacturing and launching of the Ford Edsel were done by excessive market research and lots of suspense but it could not live up to the expectations of the managers. They created the car as a medium priced automobile with unique features but customers didn’t like it at all. Apart from this, the freezing up of the push button and oil leaking leads it to maximum level of disappointment. Thus the statement states that though the managers created a car for niche market but it could not get succeeded. The car had some unique features to prove itself different from its competitors. It should have a grand success in the competition. I agree with the statement because the company had really spent long time to plan for the unique design to make a change in the market. But situation did not support it as there was a recession in USA that reduces the disposable income of general people. The situation of recession was like a catalyst in the downturn of the sales. Apart from this, some of its features were not liked by the customers and they took it as an old model that they used to get from Chrysler and GM. Along with it the timing of launching was not good as the car was not ready and the period of early fall was considered to sell off the previous models by the dealers. Thus Ford had to compete with the old models of 1957 which were given at a lower price by the dealers to clear the stock.

Knowledge Management and Strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Knowledge Management and Strategy - Case Study Example In this case the Australians Mango Industry Association Ltd. (AMIA) must look for ways in which they can create, capture, organize and eventually distribute knowledge from one part of the world to another. Consequently, the latter association needs to ensure that they can easily distribute this knowledge and that it is in fact available to other future users. Knowledge transfer mechanisms are quite different from communication mechanisms because they are more complex. AMIA needs to look for ways in which it can accumulate all the relevant knowledge for entering the Chinese market because there knowledge does not exist in just one form. The association's members could play a contributory role. Additionally, certain sub networks exist that could facilitate knowledge transfer. On top of this, it is likely that the tools and tasks prevalent within the association could go a long way in ascertaining that the company is itself one of the most respectable ones in the business. The latter association needs to put in mind that fact that a large portion of knowledge required to export mangoes to China is tacit hence the need to appropriate transfer mechanisms. There are a series of issues th... Argote (2000) states that the major weaknesses that can hinder knowledge transfer mechanisms are the informal networking activities. The following areas can facilitate these; Task forces Teams Managerial efforts Etc Since AMIA is venturing into unknown territory, then these informal networks have not yet been set. They may present problems in the transfer of knowledge. Additionally, the current situation may prove to be sticky in terms of knowledge transfer because of certain knowledge related factors. These factors can impede progress by AMAI owing to the fact that certain forms of knowledge may be too context specific. This means that there may be knowledge that applies only to Australia and cannot be exported to other parts of the world. This eventually makes such efforts futile. In other scenarios, certain forms of knowledge cannot be transferred by AMIA because it is too ambiguous to derive any form of usefulness from it. In order to acquire knowledge, it is important for people to be motivated to acquire it. In other words, the association needs to look for ways in which it can motive people to want to acquire knowledge. (Shaw, 2001) The need for motivation is important in any country or organization owing to the fact that increased knowledge can cause a disruption in the current working routines and also in the type of organizational practices prevalent within those areas. AMIA needs to dedicate considerable amount of resources and time in allowing them to deal with the issues as they are. Another major problem that is facing AMIA is with regard to the social cultural and also the structural distance between the two countries i.e. Australia and China. The latter association will have difficulties in communication because the two countries speak different

Summary the article The Power to see ourselves by Paul J. Brower

Summary the The Power to see ourselves by Paul J. Brower - Article Example The only thing professional managers can do to new managers is to help them trust in themselves and understand their own situation. Self-concept has an extensive impact on individual perception and abilities. The author has as well equated self-concept with a filter that screens and eliminates things that people do not want to hear or see and pass on those things that are favorable to individual’s public image. Self-concept also offers eccentric flavor to individual behavior. A part from its significance in understanding the general human behavior, self concept is exceptionally vital in explaining manager development, especially in the situation where the behavioral change is objective. Referring to Brower’s observation, professional behavioral change is in most cases used to explain individual change in self-concept. The term self-concept deals with immediate and immerses changes in managers’ behaviors. As stated by Brower, an individual behavioral change is in most cases influenced by one’s past experiences and age. As people grow, they achieve new experiences and learn new things that are incorporated in their perceptive mass. This change alters individual perception on emerging issues and happenings. As a result, Brower observes change in managers’ behavior as a constant process in their career development (Brower,

Brock article 1 Essay Example for Free

Brock article 1 Essay (10) In understanding the idea presented by Brock as far as the idea of professional norms are voluntarily adopted, it is essential to point out the two elements that go together with it. The first one involves the creation of norms and values of a specific profession that is often imposed unto its members (Brock,). In this idea, the organization should also coordinate and collaborate with related agencies and institutions that specialize in such area. The second idea refers to the ability of each professional to directly adhere to the norms his/her organization provides (Brock,). It is through such entry that the individual takes on these facets accordingly. (11) The term conventional compromise provided by Brock in the article revolves around the question and issue of moral implications in the practice and facilitation of medicine. Under this facet, the term revolves around a â€Å"physician/pharmacist who has a serious moral objection providing a service/product to a patient/customer is not required to do so† (Brock, 2008, p. 194). At the same time, it is in here that there are several conditions that must also be looked into before saying that a particular case or issue has undergone a conventional compromise. These facets include (1) proper information so as to the facilitation of service/product, (2) proper referrals to other professionals who can provide, and (3) the second facet will not cause burden or difficulty for the patient (Brock, 2008). Under the first facet, there needs to be proper support and ground for the facilitation of a service or mechanism so as to fit the described example. It is in here that active communication about the practice must be given to any patient before declining its prescription or rendering of service (Brock, 2008). On the second facet, it requires the ability of any medical professional to have access to networks that have relatively opinions as theirs as far as the issue is concerned. This will then satisfy the condition that patients can seek for alternatives of providers of such device/service (Brock, 2008). Lastly, there must be careful consideration as far as its suitability and preference of patients are concerned. Since these ideas are prone to subjectivity, medical professionals must then establish these areas to connote the term conventional compromise (Brock, 2008) (12) In responding to the case of the pharmacist, Brock would probably argue against the notion set by the pharmacist. This is because this profession is part of an organization wherein the norms and objectives are stipulated accordingly (Brock, 2008). The action committed by the person is only a matter of moral conscience and does not solely revolve around the basic standpoint of the profession. Likewise, foregoing the facilitation of contraceptives as an option disregards the fact that the organization he/she is part of considers this as an option for practice (Brock, 2008). These are some tenets that is included when she agreed to be part of the institution and agency and collaborated with standards provided by concerned agencies (Brock, 2008). Seeing this disposition, Brock would then argue to the pharmacist that he/she practice a conventional compromise wherein she will actively provide and designate a professional who may think and view the issue differently from his/her perspective. This a way to protect both the opinion and value set of the pharmacist and ability of the patient to recognize the possible options available for him/her (Brock, 2008). By doing this, it can prevent conflict and questions surrounding the ability of such medical professional to provide numerous options for patients despite the differences in opinions and values. Reference Brock, D. W. (2008) Conscientious refusal by physicians and pharmacists: who is obligated and why? in Springer Science. Retrieved June 25, 2009. 187-200.

Composite Materials In Automotive Brake Disc

Composite Materials In Automotive Brake Disc Abstract The aim of this paper is to explore the uses of ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) in the automotive industry, their advantages over current grey cast iron discs, their manufacturing processes and potential commercial applications. Cast iron brake discs consume much fuel due to its high specific gravity. As a result, a better and perhaps cheaper alternative is needed to fulfil the needs of high end automotive industries and even mid range consumer vehicles. INTRODUCTION Reducing green house gases and fuel consumption is a common goal for automotive industries and of paramount importance. Auto industries have dramatically increased the use of aluminium in light vehicles in order to reduce weight and help improve efficiency. Aluminium alloy based metal matrix composites (MMCs) with ceramic particulate reinforcement have shown great promise for such applications [1,2]. These materials having a lower density and higher thermal conductivity as compared to the conventionally used gray cast irons are expected to result in weight reduction of up to 50 60 % in brake systems [3]. Under severe service conditions like higher speed, higher load etc, these advanced materials have the potential to with stand these conditions. Basic mechanism of mechanical properties The high fracture toughness or crack resistance mentioned above is a result of the following mechanism: under load the ceramic matrix cracks, like any ceramic material, at an elongation of about 0.05%. In CMCs the embedded fibres bridge these cracks. This mechanism works only when the matrix can slide along the fibres, which means that there must be a weak bond between the fibres and matrix. A strong bond would require a very high elongation capability of the fibre bridging the crack, and would result in a brittle fracture, as with conventional ceramics. Thermal and electrical properties The thermal and electrical properties of the composite are a result of its constituents, namely fibers, matrix and pores as well as their composition. The orientation of the fibers yields anisotropic data. Oxide CMCs are very good  electrical insulators, and because of their high porosity their  thermal insulation  is much better than that of conventional oxide ceramics. The use of carbon fibers increases the  electrical conductivity, provided the fibers contact each other and the voltage source. Silicon carbide matrix is a good thermal conductor. Electrically, it is a  semiconductor, and its  resistance  therefore decreases with increasing temperature. Compared to (poly)crystalline SiC, the amorphous SiC fibers are relatively poor conductors of heat and electricity. CMC Brake Discs Disc brakes  are typically made out of grey cast iron. This material is has high tensile strength and can withstand a high temperature before failing. In high performance vehicles the amount of heat generated by friction when braking can be too great so the brakes fail or must be changed often. The failure is due to thermally induced fractures. Also these brakes can be heavy and susceptible to corrosion, which cause failure. Other composites have been tested such as Metal Matrix Composite, and Carbon Carbon Composites. The challenges with these materials are the ability to dissipate heat caused by friction isnt optimal at high enough temperatures. A typical grey cast iron disc brake can withstand a surface heat of 400 C before failure occurs. Type C/C-SiC is a Carbon fiber phase added to a Silicon Carbide matrix. The resulting material has increased strength with a lower density and high tribological characteristics. The most predominant feature is its ability to withstand high temperatures without failure. Due to its low coefficient of thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity, this CMC can retain its strength at high temperature. This CMC was manufactured as a disc brake with 2D reinforced discontinuous fibers. The fibers are placed perpendicular to the surface of friction to maximize Thermal conductivity. The result is a disc brake that can withstand surfaces temperatures of 1000 C with minimal wear. Problems There are multiple reasons for CMC disk brakes not being implemented among regular cars. Firstly, there is a low demand for high performance brakes due to the brakes themselves being rather expensive. As CMCs gain popularity, the cost of the raw material is expected to reduce, regardless of it being slightly expensive. Since regular cars arent used at high speeds, the amount of heat generated with low friction is small. As such, the Carbon Silicon Carbide brakes become inefficient and much weaker particularly in colder conditions. Thermal expansion of the composite and ceramic matrix results in this weakness. Cracking can occur on the surface of the brakes as the material expands at different rates under different temperatures. ADVANTAGES The integration of long multi-strand fibres has drastically increased the crack resistance,  elongation  and  thermal shock  resistance, and resulted in several new applications. As a result this has overcome the common problems associated with the conventional technical ceramics like alumina, silicon carbide, aluminium nitride, silicon nitride, or zirconia. Elongation  to rupture up to 1% Strongly increased  fracture toughness Extreme  thermal shock  resistance Improved dynamical load capability Anisotropic  properties following the orientation of fibers In comparison to the conventional grey cast iron brake disk the carbon-ceramic brake disk Weighed round 50 per cent less reducing the unsprung mass by almost 20 kilograms Improved brake response and fading data High thermal stableness No hot judder Excellent pedal feel Improved steering behavior High abrasion resistance and this longer life time and the advantage of avoiding almost completely brake dust The table below shows the properties of grey cast iron and its advanced alternatives (SGL Group n.d.) Property Unit Material C/SiC material, general C/SiC for carbon- ceramic brake disk Gray cast iron (GG-20) Density g cm-3 1,8 2,9 2,45 7,25 Tensile strength MPa (=N mm-2) 10 240 20 40 200 250 Modulus of elasticity GPa 20 240 30 90 110 Flexural strength MPa (=N mm-2) 20 210 50 80 150 250 Elongation at break % 0.05 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.8 Thermal shock resistance   (second thermal coefficient K) W m-1 26.500 46.000 > 27.000 < 5.400 Thermal stability  °C 1350 1350 approx. 700 Maximum operating temperature   (brake disk)  °C 1400   non-oxidizing 900 700 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion K-1 1.0 3.5 2.6 3.0 9 12 Thermal conductivity W m-1K-1 20 150 40 54 Specific heat capacity (cp) kJkg-1K-1 0.6 1.7 0.8 0.5 Manufacturing Processes There are currently 5 known manufacturing procedures for matrix forming. They are: Matrix deposition from a gas phase Matrix forming via pyrolysis of C- and Si-containing polymers Matrix forming via chemical reaction Matrix forming via sintering Matrix formed via electrophoresis Matrix deposition from a gas phase involves a process known as chemical vapour deposition where in the presence of a fibre perform, the deposition takes place between the fibres and their individual filaments and thus called chemical vapour infiltration. Pyrolysis (Pyrolysis  is a  thermo chemical  decomposition  of  organic material  at elevated temperatures without the participation of  oxygen) of C- and Si-containing polymers involves hydrocarbon  polymers to shrink during  pyrolysis, and upon  out gassing  form carbon with an amorphous, glass-like structure, which by additional heat treatment can be changed to a more  graphite-like structure. Matrix formation via chemical reaction works by one material being located between the fibres that react with a second material to form the ceramic matrix. Sintering is used to manufacture oxide fibre/oxide matrix CMC materials. Special  precursor  liquids are used to infiltrate the pre-form of oxide fibres. In the  electrophoresis  process, electrically charged particles are dispersed in a special liquid are transported through an  electric field  into the preform, which has the opposite electrical charge polarity. Application in Brake Discs Carbon/carbon  (C/C) materials have found their way into the  disk brakes  of  racing cars  and  airplanes, and C/SiC brake disks manufactured by the LSI process were qualified and are commercially available for  luxury vehicles. The advantages of these C/SiC disks are: Very little wear, resulting in lifetime use for a car with a normal driving load of 300,000  km, is forecast by manufacturers. No  fading  is experienced, even under high load. No surface  humidity  effect on the friction coefficient shows up, as in C/C brake disks. The corrosion resistance, for example to the road salt, is much better than for metal disks. The disk mass is only 40% of a metal disk. This translates into less unsprung and rotating mass. The weight reduction improves shock absorber response, road-holding comfort, agility, fuel economy, and thus driving comfort. The SiC-matrix of LSI has a very low porosity, which protects the carbon fibers quite well. Brake disks do not experience temperatures above 500  °C for more than a few hours in their lifetime. Oxidation is therefore not a problem in this application. The reduction of manufacturing costs will decide the success of this application for middle-class cars.

Liver Function Tests Literature Review and Practice

Liver Function Tests Literature Review and Practice Introduction The liver is the largest internal organ in the body. In adult the liver weighs approximately 1-2.5 kilograms. It is â€Å"wedge-shaped†, soft and reddish-brown in colour. It is situated underneath the diaphragm. The liver is divided into right and left lobes by the middle hepatic vein. The right lobe is bigger and consists of caudate and quadrate lobes. The blood is supplied to the liver constitute 25% of the resting cardiac output and through two major blood vessels: hepatic artery and portal vein. Blood leaves the liver via the hepatic vein, which drains directly into the inferior vena cava. Bile is formed in the liver and it is collected in the bile capillaries which drain into the right and left hepatic ducts. The liver is organised in lobules within which blood flows past hepatic cells via sinusoids from branches of the portal vein (bringing absorbed materials from gastrointestinal tract) to the central vein of each lobule. Hepatic artery blood (providing oxygen needed for many of the metabolic processes carried out by the liver) also enters the sinusoids. The central veins coalesce to form the hepatic veins which drain into the inferior vena cava. Each liver cell is also apposed to several bile canaliculi. The canaliculi coalesce to form the right and left hepatic ducts, which join outside the liver to form the common hepatic duct. The cystic duct drains the gallbladder. The hepatic duct unites with the cystic duct to form the common bile duct. The common bile duct enters the duodenum at the papilla. Ganong, (1995) Hepatocytes or parenchymal (liver cells) which further classified on the basis of their site in the lobule comprise about 60% kupffer cells lining the hepatic sinusoids comprise 30% of the liver cells and the remaining 10% of cells consist of vascular and supporting tissue and bile ducts. The significant important of the liver came from the ability of this organ to perform a wide variety of functions which contribute in the body homeostasis, in particular regulation of blood sugar. When there is an excess sugar, the pancreatic cells secret the hormone insulin that converts excess sugar into glycogen (storage form of glucose). Glycogen provide rapid accessible source of energy for the body when blood glucose decrease. Also gluconeogenesis (formation of new glucose) from amino acids such as alanine and ascorbic acid take place in liver. The coagulation factors which are required for blood clotting, albumin and various lipoproteins which are required for transport of lipid in blood stream are synthesized in the liver. The only exception of protein synthesis is the synthesis of immunoglobulin. Cholesterol which serves as precursor of steroid hormones is mostly synthesized in by the liver. Also liver has the ability to excrete and detoxify e.g. ammonia formed from the brea kdown of amino acids or microbial action in the gastrointestinal tract converted to urea. Steroid hormones which are inactivated by conjugation with glucuronate and sulphate excreted into urine as water soluble forms. A wide range of medications (drugs) inactivated by endoplasmic reticulum enzymes and some are excreted in the bile. Kupffer cells in the hepatic sinusoid extract toxins absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Other important excretory function is the excretion of bile acid formed from cholesterol in the liver to gall bladder where it stored until required for lipid digestion in the small intestine. The ability of liver to carry out its excretory function of the metabolism end products depends on, healthy functioning hepatocytes, adequate blood flow through the liver and patent biliary duct. The other important function of liver is Storage of vitamins such as vitamin A, D and vitamin B12. In addition, metabolism and excretion of bilirubin is one of the major functions of the liver. Bilirubin is an ecteric waste product pigment formed from the breakdown of haemoglobin (Hb) in the red blood cells in the lymph reticular system at the end of their life span which is approximately 120 days. Normally an adult produces about 450 umol/L daily. Gaw et al, (1999). Hb contains four haem group, an iron atom and prophyrin ring attached to each haem group. When Hb molecules metabolize, the iron atoms are removed and reused again in the processing of a new Hb molecule. The prophyrin ring breaks to form a open tetrapyrole derivative biliverdin chain which is further reduced to form unconjugated bilirubin (lipid soluble).Whitby, (1988). The lipid-soluble bilirubin can cross cell membrane include brain barrier and cause brain cell damage. Therefore it has to be transported by a special carrier called albumin in the plasma in order to be converted to water-soluble so that can be excreted into bile. The binding of albumin accomplished by being not enter cells readily and also not filtered through glumerulus unless there is glomerular proteinuria. When the albumin-bilirubin complex reach the liver, it dissociates by the receptors on the plasma at the same time. Inside hepatocytes, bilirubin molecules join to relatively non-specific anion binding proteins called ligandin (Y protein), is soluble transport protein in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Calbreath, (1992). The glucuronic acid molecules attach to unconjugated bilirubin molecules to form bilirubin glucuronides in a reaction mediated by uridine diphosphate (UDP). Bilirubin glucuronides complex is water-soluble conjugated bilirubin which then excreted into small i ntestine. The conjugation process depends on the active secretion of bile acids and therefore serum bile acids concentration are more sensitive index of hepatic transport function than the total bilirubin. Small amount undergoes reabsorption in the small intestine and the rest is degraded by bacterial action mainly in the colon where it is de-conjugated to form urobilinogen. Portions of urobilinogen re-enter the hepatic circulation and excreted by the liver into bile. Small fraction filtered by kidney into urine, but the majority is excreted in faeces providing its orange-yellow characteristic. If the bilirary tract becomes blocked, serum bilirubin concentration will rise as uncojugated bilirubin not excreted and the patient becomes jaundice. Jaundice is a yellow discoloration of the skin or the sclera of the eye. The yellowish coloration is caused by an excess amount of bilirubin in the plasma which is not detectable until the concentration is greater than 40 umol/L. gaw, et al (1999). The normal concentration is up to 20 umol/L. causes of jaundice classified into three categories including haemolytic (prehepatic) jaundice characterized by an increased breakdown of haemoglobin, hepatic jaundice due to failure of the conjugation mechanism and post hepatic or obstructive jaundice because of obstruction of biliary system. Most newborn babies are characterized with physiological or neonatal jaundice due to natural process of breaking down RBCs. As their livers are immature, they can not process bilirubin as quickly as when they are old. This increase in bilirubin concentration and has no significance to do with liver. Marshal, (2000). In clinical practice usually all the tests related to liver diseases are called liver function tests (LFT). Biochemical tests include measurement of bilirubin, the aminotransferases (ALT and AST), albumin total protein and alkaline pkosphatase in serum specimen. Albumin and total protein reflect the synthetic liver function. ALT and AST used to measure the severity of liver cells damage although they are not specific index of acute damage to hepatocytes, but they are sensitve indicators to cytoplasmic and mitochondrial membrane. Gaw, et al (1999). Increased conjugation bilirubin concentration and increased ALP activity at sinusoidal surface indicate cholestasis, a blockage in the bile flow. Prolonged cholestasis can result in severe jaundice with very high bilirubin concentration result in deposition of bile salts, characterized by itching, bleeding due to vitamin K malabsorption, cholesterol retention and dark urine with pale stool. The prothrombin time (PT) which is used to asses t he synthetic function of liver is prolonged due to cholestasis. Measurement of ÃŽ ³ glutamyl transferase can give an indication of hepatocellular enzyme induction due to drugs or alcohol. Materials and method Please refer to medical biochemistry practical book (BMS2). Result Calculation Determination of ALP The equation obtained from the graph is used to calculate the amount of phenol liberated by the action of ALP. The equation is: Y = 0.1753 The enzyme activity is measured in international unit per 1 minute (IU/1) therefore to obtain the activity, the result has to be converted first to umol/1 and then divided by the incubation time (15 minutes) as follow: (Value of phenol concentration in mmol/1 X 1000) / 15 = IU/L Patient 1: Result: 0.207 / 0.1753 = 1.18083 x 1000   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  = 1180.8 umol/L To get the enzyme activity in 1 minute:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  = 1180.8 / 15 = 78.7 IU/L ALP enzyme activity of patient 1= 78.7 IU/L Patient 2: Result: 0.215 / 0.1753 = 1.2264 x 1000   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  = 1226.4 umol/L To get the enzyme activity in 1 minute:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  = 1226.4 / 15 = 81.7 IU/L ALP enzyme activity of patient 2 = 81.7 IU/L Determination of bilirubin The concentration of bilirubin is calculated by using the following equation Absorbance of the test x STD concentration Absorbance of STD Result: Patient 1 = (0.413/0.431) x 350 = 335.3 umol/L Patient 2 = (0.037/0.431) x 350 = 30 umol/L The results of Aspartate transaminase (AST), albumin and total protein were provided by the tutor. Conclusion The biochemical finding shows that patient 1 may have haemolytic disease where as the other patient (patient 2) suffer from acute hepatitis. Discussion Liver function test are done to asses the integrity of the liver to carry out its normal synthetic and metabolic functions. This is achieved through series of numerical tests that reflect the healthiness of the liver when comparing the result obtained with normal reference ranges. The measurements of enzyme activities are very useful in following the progress of the liver disease once the diagnosis has been made. From the result it is obvious that patient 1 has got normal TP, ALB, AST and ALP results, which means that there is liver damage. Total protein is combined of immunoglobulin proteins and other proteins. A persons total protein level gives information about the liver damage, kidney damage and nutritional health. Albumin is small protein made in the liver. If a person suffers from liver damage, the albumin concentration will drop because the liver can not maintain the normal production of albumin. Aspartate transminase (AST) is the enzyme found in the liver, heart and muscle. Levels of this enzyme are usually assessed in conjugation with reading for other liver enzyme to determine or monitor the liver involvement. On other hand the bilirubin is very high above the normal range (hyperbilirubiaemia) and normally the bilirubin which is present in plasma is unconjugated bilirubin. Since the unconjugated bilirubin is high it indicates that is excessive red blood cells (RBCs) destruction (haemolysis) which occurs in haemolytic anaemia. Normally the red blood cells survival is 120 days, but in haemolytic anaemia is less. Because of that the RBCs are destroyed in large quantities in the RE system (particularly the spleen). When the RBCs are destroyed, the haemoglobin is released and bilirubin is produced. It is mainly produced from the haem moiety of the haemoglobin (it is also produced from myoglobin, cytochroms and peroxidase, which are widely distributed in the body). The liver can not conjugate and remove this large amount of unconjugated bilirubin and since it is protein bound the renal glomeruli can not filter it. That leads to overflow of unconjugated bilirubin in blood circulation. These mean that this patient may have haemolytic jaundice (prehepatic jaundice), because the protein synthesis is normal and ALP, AST are normal which means that there is no liver involvement. Haemolytic jaundice also occurs in haemolytic Disease of Newborn, transfusion of incompatible blood, hereditary spherocytosis and autoimmune red cell destruction. Marshall,(2000). The results of patient 2 show normal total protein, albumin and ALP. There is a slight increase in bilirubin level (hyperbilirubinaemia) and AST is above the very high. AST is an intracellular enzyme and is mostly found in the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial membrane of hepatocytes. So it is a sensitive marker for the severity of damage hepatocytes. ALP concentration usually rises in cholestasis (this is by extra-hepatic obstruction of the bile duct) but in this patient was normal, which means that the kupffer cells and sinusoidal surface is not yet damaged. Total protein and albumin were also normal and that indicates that the metabolism and synthesis in the liver is not yet affected. Bilirubin was slightly high which support that there is liver disease and due to this, there is defect of bile salt and bile pigment excretion. In addition to that, conjugation and detoxification functions are well defected because of hepatic cells damaged. These happen due to a condition called Hepatiti s (liver inflammation). Hepatitis is the common cause of acute liver injury. Acute hepatitis usually occurs due to viral infection particularly with hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D and E, but also Epstein-bar virus and cytomegalovirus or toxin (e.g. alcohol and paracetamol). Marshall, (2000) In the early stages of hepatitis, increased plasma ALT and AST activities may be the only abnormal chemical finding. There will be also an increased level of urobilinogen and bilirubin in urine (the urine will be darkened). The stool may be very pale due to impaired biliary excretion of bilirubin and urobilinogen then disappears more or less completely from the urine. Marshall, (2000) The above results reveal that liver is functioning well but partly defected because of the early stage of the disease. This patient may have acute liver disease (Acute hepatitis). To confirm these results hepatitis virus profiles should be done. Question Jaundice in the newborn is common. Why? Jaundice in the newborn is called Neonatal Jaundice. It is common because before birth, an infant get rid of bilirubin through the mothers blood and liver system. After birth, the babys liver has to take over processing on its own. The activity of the hepatic conjugation enzyme is usually low at birth but increases rapidly thereafter. Almost all newborns have higher than normal level of bilirubin; because the immaturity of their livers. In most cases, the babys system continues to develop and can soon process bilirubin. However, some infants may need medical treatment to prevent serious complications which can occur due to the accumulation of bilirubin. There are at least two significant processes that predispose normal infants to jaundice: The rate of bilirubin production is higher in infants than adults because their red blood cells have half-life and turn over more rapidly. Infants have a relatively limited ability to conjugate bilirubin and conjugation in the liver is necessary for efficient elimination. Write short notes on Gilberts disease. Gilberts disease is a harmless inherited condition in which the unconjugated bilirubin level in the blood is increased. Bilirubin is an end product of haemoglobin breakdown and it is conjugated in the liver with glucuronate. This process is catalysed by specific enzyme called uidine diophosphate glucuronyl transferase which is found in endoplasmic reticulum, which helps the body to conjugate bilirubin and get rid of it. Thus Gilberts syndrome is a genetic disorder which means that there is slight deficiency of this enzyme. Patient with Gilberts disease can have intermittent bilirubin level but the values are often increased when blood is drown after a period of fasting or during a time of concurrent viral illness or when the person is stressed, either physically or mentally. People with Gilberts syndrome are not ill but they may complain of vague abdominal discomfort and general fatigue for which no cause found. The condition is not usually apparent until adolescence or early adult life. It is sometimes discovered incidentally, in the course of investigations done for related reasons. All liver function tests (LFTs) are normal, except for serum bilirubin which is raised. X-ray and liver biopsy show that there is no liver disease. Gilberts syndrome should not be regarded as a disease and people with the syndrome are not ill.